Ethical standards are intended to guide us in carrying out responsibilities we have to the different groups with whom we interact.” (p 320).
“Reflection should never stop, because conscious reflection on values is perhaps the cornerstone of the ethics of teaching.” (p. 327) Svinicki & McKeachie’s chapter 22 is title The ethics of teaching. It examines ethics from the standpoint of a forum for discussion and food for thought, rather than offering specific answers to the ethical quandaries. A wide range of dilemmas are presented, from not being properly prepared to teach to sexual misconduct. Of course, the educators surveyed reported that sexual harassment and sexual relationships with students was a clear violation. However, the more “admonitory norms”, as they are referred to by the authors, create more confusion for some. For example, advisement neglect, inadequate communication, and undermining colleagues were issues that did not create as strong a reaction as some of the more inviolable. These were issues of negativism, inattentive planning, moral turpitude, particularistic grading, personal disregard, uncommunicated course details, and uncooperative cynicism. (p. 321) The authors outlined responsibilities that educators have towards students, including the right of the student to think critically and freely, even if not in alignment with the instructor. The responsibility of the teacher must include coming to class fully prepared, just as we ask our students to do, and staying current in our teaching and research methods. Demonstrating respect for students, both in and out of the classroom is also stressed. This includes being sensitive to student’s emotional needs and considerate of their vulnerability in the relationship which may be construed as an imbalance of power. Confidentiality, honest and fair evaluation, and avoidance of discrimination are considered. The chapter concludes with six strategies to assist educators in dealing with ethical dilemmas. These are autonomy, nonmalfeasance, beneficence, justice, fidelity and acting consciously. These are put forth as guidelines, while acknowledging there is no one right or easy answer. My interpretation of the ethical guidelines is matched with those educators who participated in the research studies cited. However, I had not previously considered some of these issues as being under the ethics umbrella. For example, coming to class unprepared was something I did not do, but until reading this I did not understand was unethical. In hindsight this seems obvious. Not giving students your best effort is a disservice to them, and thus unethical. Students have a right to well prepared and current instruction. The idea of offering special treatment to some students because of their friendly relationship with the teacher also came to mind. It’s tempting to offer extra time and extra chances to students that you like, but this opportunity should be offered to all, not just some, or to none at all. This being said, I believe we should differentiate based on the needs of the students. If a student works more slowly than others, but is giving their best, shouldn’t they be afforded more time? If a student with a sick child asks for a small extension on an assignment, shouldn’t it be given over a student who just didn’t attempt the work until it was past due? I think you have to look at each circumstance and consider each student, dealing respectfully with each on an individual basis. Annotated Bibliography
Using critical incident reflections: A self-study as a mathematics teacher educator 1. Goodell, J. (2006). Using critical incident reflections: A self-study as a mathematics teacher educator. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 221-248. DOI:10.1007/s10857-006-9001-0 Summary: This article represents the work of an educator who spent 4 years in a self-study of her own teaching through the work of her math students. She structured a format for her pre-service teachers to identify and examine critical incidents in their field experiences, and use these as a vehicle for professional growth. Her primary question was “What are the critical incidents preservice teachers encounter during their field experience, and what do they learn about teaching for understanding through reflecting on those critical incidents?” (Goodell, 2006). She found four main ideas of focus which included managing the classroom, content knowledge, motivation, interactions with stakeholders, and school resources and policy. Assessment: The method of study was self-study, with the researcher examining course records, student work, and student opinions expressed in writing, written reports, and researcher journal entries. Qualitative analysis software was utilized for coding and data analysis. These were used to determine themes and examine influencing factors. This study provides a comprehensive history of the reflective practice in teacher education, citing important educational researchers such as Dewey, Dinkleman, Loughran, Pultorak, Lerman, Hole & McEntee, and Zeichner & Liston. It is useful to those interested in reflection as a learning tool in teacher education programs. The focus is on using critical incidents as a catalyst for student understanding and professional development. A possible limitation of the study was in the veracity of student self-reporting or the incomplete reporting where grades were involved Reflection: This connects to my research in several areas, mainly self-study in the field of pre-service teacher education, and in the area of students identifying critical incidents for the purpose of professional growth. My research also deals with pre-service teacher education, as well as having interns identify events in their practice that make the teacher “question the decisions that were made, and provide an entry to improving teaching” (Hole & McEntee as cited by Goodell, 2006). They will be deciding what to focus on when coding the video of them teaching, choosing what was important or critical to them in their self-reflection. It informs me of ways to record my data and offers insight into the use of critical incidents in reflection. Key terms: critical incident reflection, teaching for understanding, self-study, pre-service teacher education Self-study in action research: two teacher educators review their project and practice 2. Kitchen, J.,& Stevens, D. (2004). Self-study in action research: two teacher educators review their project and practice. Accessed via Researchgate.net/publication on Nov 1st, 2015. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/253479927_SELF-STUDY_IN_ACTION_RESEARCH_TWO_TEACHER_EDUCATORS_REVIEW_THEIR_PROJECT_AND_PRACTICE Summary: This article is the final entry in a four-part series conducted by two pre-service teacher educators. It concerns itself with self-study, action research, reflection for professional growth, and action research. They consider the benefits of self-study, reflection and action research for those teaching pre-service teachers in education. Conclusions include the importance of self-study as a vital part of professional growth, reflection as a necessary component, and the effectiveness of action research for practitioners. One limitation of the study included lack of self-professed knowledge by one of the authors regarding action research which he felt may have impacted his effectiveness. Additionally, tensions around collaboration were described, as well as time limitations for meetings affecting the process. Assessment: They employed a method of self-study that involved what they call S-STEP, which involves examining the role of self in the project. The study included researcher written reflections, teacher conversations, letter examination written to pre-service teachers, and self-analysis at various points in the research. These reflections provided data which informed future changes in their actions. The authors concluded their study with a final reflection synthesizing their discoveries. One of the ideas put forth in their conclusion was the importance of trust emanating from the PST in order for them to feel the environment is safe for sharing and honestly reflecting on their own teaching. Reflection: This research connects to my own research. I also feel that self-study, reflection, and action research are important parts for a teacher educator to participate in for professional growth. My study includes each of these components. I am also using some of the same methods, such as using teacher journaling, self-analysis, and communication with pre-service teachers. This study validates the research I am doing, and aligns with the goal of self-study as a teacher educator supervising PSTs. Key terms: self-study, action research, teacher education, pre-service teacher education Researching Teacher Education Practices: Responding to the Challenges, Demands, and Expectations of Self-Study 3. Loughran, J. (2007). Researching Teacher Education Practices: Responding to the Challenges, Demands, and Expectations of Self-Study. Journal of Teacher Education, 12-20. Summary: Researching Teacher Education Practices looks at the act of self-study, which the author also refers to as “narrative inquiry”. The need for and benefits of teacher educators examining their own teaching is made clear, with cautions regarding proper documentation, sharing results with others, drawing on differing perspectives, and considering the connection between teaching about teaching and learning about teaching. He calls for teacher educators to voice their pedagogical understandings after sincere and analytical reflection. Assessment: The methodology of self-study is teased out and brought to light. Loughran claims there is no one right way to conduct this, but that each goal of understanding will determine how it might be approached. The views and expectations of types of data may be in a state of flux as the study is conducted, offering some flexibility. He cautions the reader to make note of the distance between honest reflection and researching to back up the ideal of their teaching. “There is a need to resist the temptation to privilege such knowledge that can be inadvertently lead to romanticizing or justifying existing practice.” (p. 13) Loughran references to S-STEP, the Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices, whose members work towards dealing with these types of issues. Reflection: This article is helpful to those conducting self-study, narrative inquiry, and enhancing knowledge of their own practice. It highlights the field of teacher education and working with pre-service teachers. I found it particularly useful in terms of justification and understanding the type of research I am conducting, self-study including narrative. It encouraged me to examine my data honestly and critically, considering my actual practice versus the ideals I have about my teaching. “An important aspect of self-study that is crucial in understanding this methodology is embedded in the desire of teacher educators to better align their teaching intents with their teaching action.” (p. 12). I have found that often there is a disconnect between what teachers think they are doing and what they are actually doing. This article spotlights that conflict and reminds me to remain objective. Key terms: pedagogy of teacher education, professional knowledge of practice, reflection, self-study, teacher education, teaching about teaching Promoting collaborative practice and reciprocity in initial teacher education: Realizing a ‘dialogic space’ through video capture analysis. 4. Youens, B., Smethem, L., & Sullivan, S. (2014). Promoting collaborative practice and reciprocity in initial teacher education: Realizing a ‘dialogic space’ through video capture analysis. Journal of Education for Teaching, 101-113. Summary: The purpose of this article is to examine the benefits of utilizing videotaped lessons in the preparation of pre-service teachers. There is a focus on not only the effectiveness of videotaping as part of the collaborative process, but on how allowing the intern teacher to select portions of the video to view with the mentor and collaborating teacher (CT), and to plan and lead the conference, affects the power base and perceived hierarchy between these three roles. Some examination occurs of the relationship between the sponsoring university and the hosting public school, and the traditional disconnect between what the intern learns in one which can differ from what is learned in the other. Research questions include: What is the potential for video capture to enhance a pre-service teacher’s development? Does this disrupt the traditional hierarchy of the intern, CT, mentor relationship? How can this process connect what is learned at the university level to the practicum experience? How does leading the conference change the dynamic of the group interaction and effect PST learning? Assessment: The design method of this study was to set up a conference opportunity in which the intern selected a portion of their videotaped lesson to share with their mentor and CT, and took the lead in analyzing the lesson. Comments from this conference were then analyzed, as well as what resources were prepared by the interns for these meetings, their written work, and evaluation questionnaires for each participant. The researchers found that the intern experiences indeed resulted in changes, such as a greater connection between university courses and practicum experiences, which they call “bridging the theory-learning divide”. Additionally, a change in the role of power between the intern, mentor and CT was noted. A more balanced collaboration occurred, with each member of the team contributing their own perspective, referred to as an “interactive triadic dialogue”. This study would be of interest to those in teacher education, pre-service teachers, those who would like to learn about connections between fieldwork and course work, and collaborating teachers who work with interns. Reflection: The implications of this study were of note to my inquiry, in that when interns took the lead in the preparation and implementation of the post-conference, the results were positive. Student teachers showed ownership of the process and product, made leaps in their intellectual and professional growth, and became more a part of the process – doing, not being done to. Their role was more active than passive, and thus more effective. Key terms: teacher preparation, partnerships, video capture, student teachers On the Threshold of a New Century: Trustworthiness, Integrity, and Self-Study in Teacher Education 5. Hamilton, M., & Pinnegar, S. (2000). On the Threshold of a New Century: Trustworthiness, Integrity, and Self-Study in Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education, 234-240. Summary: Hamilton & Pinnegar present information about addressing the ongoing call for educational reform. They ask probing questions in the realm of teacher education, including foundational queries of the role of trustworthiness, self-study, and a unified pedagogy of teacher education. They find that self-study is an important part of being an effective role model in the field of pre-service teacher education, of value to both the researcher as well as those s/he teaches. Assessment: This article would be useful for teacher educators, student teachers, those interested in self-study and the role of trust, and educational reformers. The scope of their study is limited, and could be expanded to provide further information on the effect of self-study to foster reform. Reflection: The most interesting piece of this article to me was on trustworthiness as the basis of teacher education, and the role of self-study. They stress that there is no one right answer or one right way to approach teaching and self-study, but that the professional must determine what is best. “Teaching, learning, and the practice of teacher education would provide the basis for their study.” (p. 239). Additionally, I felt a connection to the author’s sentiment that as teacher educators, “Ultimately children in classrooms across the country will be blessed or injured by the teachers she educates. She recognizes that she has a primary obligation to them to continually improve teacher education.” This is my goal for participating in research, so that I can better support and assist my pre-service teachers, and their effect on future students is as positive as it can be. Key terms: self-study, trustworthiness in teacher education, teacher educators, educational reform Self-Study In Teacher Education: A Means And Ends Tool For Promoting Reflective Teaching 6. Dinkelman, T. (2003). Self-Study In Teacher Education: A Means And Ends Tool For Promoting Reflective Teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 6-18. Summary: This article consists of examining the importance of teacher self-study to enhance one’s own practice, and as a means of promoting reflective thinking. It discusses the alignment between reflection and teaching, and the history of these bedfellows. The author proposes that the best teachers engage in critical reflection in order to constantly improve their own teaching practices and address the conflicts which they face. This reflective process is an important part of what teacher educators model for their pre-service teachers as well, thus passing on the torch of inquiry as a professional responsibility. “If indeed students learn from the methods and manner of their teachers, and reflective thinking is an aim of instruction, then teachers should consider the ways in which their own work models reflective thinking.” (p. 11). Additionally, Dinkleman asserts that this type of research can create a positive change in the educational programs for pre-service teachers. The value of self-study is indicated, and the place it has in educational research, despite the claims by some that the rigor of this type of research can be lesser than others. Assessment: This article goes into great detail about the value of self-study for teacher educators. It is helpful in outlining the purpose of engaging in this type of research, and discussing the usefulness of the process and results. It provides a well-documented and well connected history of the field, and then moves forward into discussion of how it can positively impact the field of teacher education. Reflection: Connections between this article and my own research are clear. I am engaging in self-study, with the purpose of enhancing my effectiveness as a supervisor for pre-service teachers. I value the role I play in the development of PSTs, and always look for ways to improve my expertise, and thus their educational experiences. Dinkleman’s writing supports my path, and focuses my thinking not only on the immediate goal of working with these interns, but in the role this type of research could play in enhancing the entire teacher preparation program. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Reliability of pre-service physical education teachers' coding of teaching videos using Studiocode analysis software. 7. Prusak, K., Dye, B., Graham, C. & Graser, S. (2010). Reliability of pre-service physical education teachers' coding of teaching videos using Studiocode analysis software. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 18(1), 131-159. Chesapeake, VA: Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education. Summary: This article examines the use of video coding software by pre-service teachers (PSTs) as they code and analyze videos of them teaching. The incorporation of technology in reflecting on their own teaching had the benefits of enhancing feedback accuracy and timeliness. The authors concluded that PSTs can be trained to use the software to their benefit within a brief time, and that the PSTs findings when they code for content are matched closely with experts who also coded these same videos. This lends itself to the idea that digital video (DV) use in teacher education preparation programs could become reality. Assessment: This information is useful to those interested in integrating technology into teacher preparation programs, with a variety of benefits. It is recommended for teacher educators, pre-service teachers, technophiles, collaborating teachers, and education reformers. One limitation is that the study was only conducted with pre-service teachers in the field of physical education. More study would have to be done to extrapolate the data to other fields. Reflection: The obvious connection to my research is the use of digital video coding in pre-service teacher education. The authors used video coding software, StudioCode, having students code as they watched videos of themselves teaching. I plan to do the same, but add the supervisory component during the process, journaling, recording data, and reflecting on my role throughout the process. These students were physical education majors, and I will be working with elementary education majors. It will be interesting to see if any of the results are similar, as well as if there are differences. Key words: teacher education, pre-service teachers, technology in teacher preparation, video coding =========================================================== The role of lesson analysis in pre-service teacher education: An empirical investigation of teacher learning from a virtual video-based field experience. 8. Santagata, R., Zannoni, C., & Stigler, J. (2007). The role of lesson analysis in pre-service teacher education: An empirical investigation of teacher learning from a virtual video-based field experience. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 123-140. Summary: This is an investigation into the use of video analysis in a teacher preparation program, and its implications for future use. The study involved 140 pre-service teachers (PSTs), asking them to watch teaching videos in their area of choice, and then code what they saw within provided frameworks of teacher actions, student behavior, and math content. The study found that PSTs were able to accurately code what they viewed in the video, creating a synthesis between classroom theory and practice. Assessment: Methodology includes an open ended pre and post assessment given to the two groups of students who took part in this study, over the course of two years. A coding system of five criteria was provided to the students, including math content, elaboration, student learning, critical approach, and alternative strategies. The benefits included increased student expertise in identification and analysis of these five constructs, and the exposure to positively modeled teacher instruction as designed by the preparation program. This research is beneficial to those interested in ways to use technology to enhance pre-service teacher preparation, particularly through the use of video analysis. Pre-service teachers as well may benefit from this information, as well as supervisors, college professors, and collaborating teachers with interns. Reflection: My studies are directly related to these, in the use of video analysis to help pre-service teachers become better prepared to teach. It shows the benefits of using video technology in teacher education. A similarity is that students are given some choice in what they focus on when watching the videos, such as student behavior, content, or teacher actions. They can gain information from watching and attending to these particular areas of focus. However, my studies have students watching videos of themselves teaching, rather than videos of expert teachers in the field. The areas of focus are similar, but have greater variety and are more open ended based on the self-identified goal of the PST. Key words: Teacher education, lesson analysis, video, math, field experience, pre-service teachers, video ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9. The impact of collaborative video analysis by practitioners and researchers upon pedagogical thinking and practice: A follow-up study Hennessy, S., & Deaney, R. (2009). The impact of collaborative video analysis by practitioners and researchers upon pedagogical thinking and practice: A follow-up study. Teachers and Teaching CTAT Teachers & Teaching, 617-638. Summary: This study examined the use of video analysis by collaborative groups in the process of their “T-Media” project. Videos of teachers were viewed and analyzed of teacher’s own classroom activities, including their use of projection technology. The goal was to examine the pedagogical rationale behind their use of these tools. This structure was expanded to other subject areas as well with similar results. Assessment: The research involved eight secondary school teachers in the United Kingdom, aligned in four pairs. Semi-structured interviews were conducted after analyzing the videos, to examine the pedagogical impact and impact on their teaching. A positive correlation was found between teachers taking part in this study and their own collaborative and reflective processes. This study is of interest to persons wanting to further incorporate technology into education, those interested in the use of video analysis in teacher professional development, and for classroom teachers working to enhance their use of technology and to increase their effectiveness in the classroom. Further research could be done on the exact changes these teachers were able to implement in their classrooms based on taking part in this study, as well as information about others who took part in the T-Media structured project. This study was conducted in the UK, so further research conducted in American schools would be beneficial to see if results remained fixed in different teaching systems. Reflection: I chose this article because of the correlation between this study’s focus on video analysis for the purpose of teachers’ professional growth and the inclusion of video analysis in my own research. Having teachers use video to reflect and analyze their own teaching practice is a common component. I found the information useful in noting the structure used by these researchers as well as the results indicating a positive correlation between participant growth and enhanced self-awareness in their practice. It reinforces that this type of research can reap great benefits for participants. Key words: reflective teaching, video analysis, theory practice relationship, professional development ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10. Reliability of Pre-Service Teachers Coding of Teaching Videos Using Video-Annotation Tools Dye, Brigham R., "Reliability of Pre-Service Teachers Coding of Teaching Videos Using Video-Annotation Tools" (2007). All Theses and Dissertations. Paper 990. Summary: This research study examines the reliability of pre-service teachers (PSTs) when using video analysis through coding teaching skills. PSTs watched expert teachers in the classroom and were asked to code and analyze their skills. The outcome was a match up to more experienced teachers with a degree of accuracy of 49-68%. Interestingly, when these PSTs watched videos of themselves teaching and coded these, their accuracy increased significantly to 91%. The conclusion of the researchers was that using teaching videos as part of a pre-service teacher program was beneficial, helping create a common event between a supervisor and her/his intern which could be viewed many times and analyzed to assist the PST in their professional development. Assessment: A limitation of this study can be seen in the discrepancy of how coding proficiency was measured, with a need for more uniformity leading to more reliable results. The research would be of interest to pre-service teachers, PST supervisors, those interested in using technology to enhance learning, and collaborating teachers working with interns. Reflection: This study connects to my research closely. The authors designed a study with pre-service teachers viewing their own teaching (as well as the teaching of others) in order to examine the components and allow both the PST and the supervisor to come to consensus on the effectiveness of that lesson. I find that it supports what I propose to do in my own study, and can find common ground in many aspects and approaches. Svinicki, M., & McKeachie, W. J. (2014). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (14th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Chapter 21 in the Svinicki and McKeachie text is about teaching students to think. This means to think critically, make decisions, to reflect and seek answers to unique problems, to be original, think creatively, and make connections. Critical thinking is defined as analysis, evaluation and synthesis. The authors outline challenges to getting students to think critically, which are: students may have limited practice, patience, time, direction and expectations. As part of the “confused landscape” of pedagogy, an important process also included is reasoning. This includes syllogistic thinking, induction, deduction, and making inferences. The differing types of thinking can vary in application by academic discipline. (p. 308). A framework that supports teaching thinking is the well-known Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1956), with later revisions by Anderson and Kratwohl (2001). Lower level thinking may be what students are more comfortable with, but as educator’s seeking a more lasting level of understanding, the higher levels of the framework are sought, such as create, synthesize/analyze and evaluate. A second thinking framework is Perry’s work from 1970 which stressed metacognition, “awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.” (p. 310). These stages include multiplism, relativism, and commitment. A third framework which deals with motivation is Biggs and Collis’ SOLO approach. SOLO stands for structure of observed learning outcomes. This taxonomy also stresses metacognition and encourages complex thinking versus shallow learning. One specific ways to improve thinking quality is writing clear thinking based goals into the syllabus. This sets the expectation for learning, emphasizing this over simply going through the motions or finishing a checklist of assignments. Recognizing and acknowledging examples of positive student thinking can also help them understand expectations. The keys to helping students develop thinking skills are opportunities for practice, fostering reflection on successes and challenges, adequate feedback for growth, and strategies and frameworks which support their progress. There are many useful tips I can use in my own teaching, such as revising my syllabus to emphasize learning goals rather than tasks, pointing out examples of critical and creative thinking, and continuing to provide time for reflection of strengths and areas of focus. One way I do this is by providing time at the end of class for students to write what they learned, how they can apply what they learned into their field experience. This allows students to move to the higher level of Bloom’s taxonomy, applying the new information to their real world experiences. I also ask them to assess their own level of learning and give them space to ask questions they may still have. One example that comes to mind when reading this chapter was when co-teaching with a colleague. A student shared an idea in class that I immediately thought to me was not in alignment with the syllabus. Instead of correcting the student, this professor praised the student for her unique and creative idea. The whole class seemed to take note of this, and it fostered a more meaningful and open discussion on how to implement this particular skill. I reflected on that moment and realized it was alright to “break the rules” because the actual goal was still being met, even though it was not the specific way it was written into the syllabus. The student was proud of her idea. It wasn’t shot down or criticized, but praised. This was a great example to me about being flexible and thinking outside the box. It was a small moment which I bet no one else noticed or remembered, but it was pivotal to me. Svinicki, M., & McKeachie, W. J. (2014). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (14th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Chapter 19 Laboratory Instruction: Ensuring an Active Learning Experience “Lab teaching assumes that firsthand experience is superior to other method of developing the same skills” (pg. 277). Like all types of effective instruction, labs should be student centered, engaging and involve active learning strategies. Svinicki and McKeachie discuss how to facilitate this in chapter 19 of their book, McKeachie’s teaching tips (2014). There are a variety of styles of laboratory instruction, including expository, inquiry, discovery, and problem based learning (PBL). In brief summary, expository is a convergent style, with a “cookbook” approach of following the given instructions and finding the correct answer.. Inquiry has no predetermined outcome, and students are allowed to formulate problems. Discovery, also known as guided inquiry, has a prescribed outcome, with students design and input. The final category is problem based learning, commonly known as PBL, where students generate their own questions and conduct an authentic investigation. These categories are original to Domin, 1999, but referenced in the Svinicki & McKeachie text. Further, the chapter talks about convergent assignment labs with one right answer versus divergent labs which are open ended and allow interpretation. Another comparison is a “wet” lab, with hands on experiments and student data collection, contrasted with a “dry” lab, in which students receive the data but do not actually do the experiment. Their task is to interpret and analyze that data. There are advantages to each, according to the research. A final category for labs is studio instruction. This is a hybrid method combining lab and lecture in the same place, to allow for real world experiences connection to the academic instruction. This chapter is practical for anyone who teaches. It includes a brief discussion of how labs fit not only into traditional science courses, but that a lab can be diverse and can fit into other subjects as well, including but not limited to history, math, and writing. I feel it’s important to note that hands on labs are typically effective methods of instruction for minority students. “Seymour and Hewitt (1977) showed that the most effective way to improve retention among women and students of color, and to build their numbers over the longer term, is to improve the quality of the learning experience for all students – including non-science majors who wish to study science and mathematics as part of their overall education.” (pg. 284) Having taught middle school science for a number of years, I have first-hand experience with each of these lab types. I personally prefer the wet lab over the dry, because I feel students learn more when they are doing the experiment, but I also understand the need for dry labs if there is a time constraint or the amount of data to be collected is quite large, or the lab is extensively time consuming. Additionally, safety must be considered, and a dry lab allows for mistakes without harm. The use of technology in either is motivating to students, and allows for ease in data collection and analysis. I had not considered the divergent versus convergent lab style, and doing so now can see value in both. Sharing the knowledge of those who came before is important, to build a foundation on which to further explore. But fostering creativity and exploration in a unique individual is critical. I believe these can be combined, by scaffolding labs and lessons. |
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