- How Teachers Learn and Develop
- The Design of Teacher Education Programs - Implementing Curriculum Renewal in Teacher Education: Managing Organizational and Policy Change Summary This begins with a review of the history and current research theory regarding how teachers learn and develop as professionals. It is broken into main themes: adaptive expertise, teaching strategies, efficiency versus innovation, the process and theories of teacher development in communities of practice, teacher identify development, and a framework for teacher learning. Learning to teach in a community has five components. These include a vision of what is possible, tools, disposition, understanding, and practices. Teachers needs to have a deep understanding of their content and effective ways to share this knowledge with others. Learning tools include both conceptual as well as practical. A repertoire of these tools allows the teacher to be responsive to the needs of her students, and flexible when faced with challenges presented by diverse learners. These include instructional strategies, resources, assessments, frameworks, ideas, and leaning theories. A disposition of an inquiry stance, the self as a lifelong learner, is considered an important component of becoming an effective teacher. Equally important is working in a community of learners, such as a team of teachers or working in a peer group. Considering one’s identity includes being aware of self in areas such as moral agency, child advocate, scholar, and professional. Identity as a member of a racial/ethnic group influences each of these components, either directly or through a hidden curriculum created by the teacher as s/he creates a learning environment shaped by her own unique experiences. An oft-cited problem identified in teacher education is the disconnect between the theoretical and the practical, namely between course work and field experiences. Coherence in program design and among faculty is also a standard complaint of critics. Creating a strong program with unified vision and connections between theory and practice have been shown to have had a positive impact on teacher candidates. Content, process and context have a large influence on the effectiveness of a teacher education program, and should be considered when organizing scope and sequence of an educational plan. This includes engaging practices which merge course work and the opportunity to practice these skills in productive real world settings. Again, collaboration, such as in professional learning communities, can lead to increased use of effective strategies. Common features among programs which are considered successful in teacher preparation include: a shared vision of good teaching that is consistent in course and clinical work, well-defined standards of practice, rich clinical experiences lasting at least thirty weeks, strong school -university relationships, and extensive use of case study methods, teacher research performance assessments and portfolio examinations. (p. 406) Although there is no one size fits all solution for addressing these challenges, the strengths of these programs can serve as a guide for others in developing the most effective teacher preparation programs possible. Professional Development Schools are a key component in pre-service teacher preparation and success. They create a purposeful connection between the university and the school, and foster an inquiry based learning experience which promotes the idea of the teacher as a lifelong learner. This intensive experience is facilitated by strong supervisory contact, and purposeful connections between concept and practice. Students who graduate from PDSs have indicated a greater satisfaction with their preparation to become a teacher, and a well-developed knowledge base (p. 415). Connections “Teacher educators argue that teachers need to develop consciousness about their own racial identity and consider how they can support positive racial identity development among their students.” (p. 384). This is a goal I share, along with the university and program I teach within. How to facilitate this awareness for my interns is something I continue to wrestle with. I feel it’s important. Having taken a critical pedagogy course as part of my own studies, I understand the importance of being self-aware and in touch with any cultural biases one might have, which can influence your teaching and interactions with students. I want my pre-service teachers to have this same understanding as they move into their own classrooms. How can I get them there? Providing them with a rich and robust variety of written material is a start. Reading different pieces by different authors offers them a perspective from each, allowing them multiple opportunities to connect to the writings. This allows them to make connections between their own experiences and the new material. This addresses the “apprenticeship of observation” dilemma, a term coined by Lortie in 1975. Additionally, creating a safe space and encouraging dialogue among peers can facilitate learning gains. This shared discourse is a proven method of effective learning. (Friere, 1970). Utilizing a tool proposed in Darling-Hammonds work, providing a framework for metacognitive reflection is also something I use in my courses. Borrowing from Dr. J. Jacobs, as well as the ideas shared by Darling-Hammond, I would also like to incorporate more opportunities for students to reflect on their own ideas and experiences through written reflections such as an auto ethnography. The strength of the current practice of practitioner inquiry woven throughout the two years our interns are with us is a strong step in the right direction. Our interns have an exemplary preparation, with very strong clinical experiences. I also had a great interest in the section on using video analysis to reflect on and improve teaching. This brief section talks about how Northwest University had interns complete video-based assignments that drew on “explicit feedback from mentor teachers, university faculty, and program peers” (p. 428). Having conducted my own research on the use of video in enhancing teacher preparation, I found the idea of other ways to use video in self-reflection through technology of note. This practice was cited as helping to create a connection between the university and clinical experience, which is a context I had not explicitly considered prior to reading this, however, it does make sense. I see many correlations between the best practices and plethora of ideas presented in the Darling-Hammond text and the clinically rich and well-structured program at USF. It affirms that we are doing what is best for our students, and offering them an experience which will prepare them to be successful teachers. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., Bransford, J., Berliner, D., Cochran-Smith, M., McDonald, M. & Zeichner, K. (2005). How teachers learn and develop. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327- 357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Darling-Hammond, L., Hammerness, K., Grossman, P., Rust, F. & Shuman, L. (2005). The design of teacher education programs. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Darling-Hammond, L., Pacheco, A., J., Michelli, N., LePage, P., Hammerness, K. & Youngs, P. (2005). Implementing curriculum renewal in teacher education: Managing organization and policy change. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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LePage, P., Darling-Hammond, L., Akar, H., Guiterrez, C., Jenkins, G. & Rosebrook, K. (2005). Classroom Management. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. (pp. 327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Summary The authors of chapter nine propose that classroom management is a standing necessity for preservice teachers to develop, yet one which does not receive enough attention in their educational training. Their definition of management includes not only the traditional aspects of rewarding good behavior and punishing poor behavior, but also the strong influencing factors of developing relationships, mutual respect, productive classroom communities, citizenship, student motivation, parent involvement, and students’ moral development. Interns often cite this as one of their greatest concerns. Five types of misbehavior are identified: aggression, immorality, disruptions, defiance and goofing off (p. 342-343). These can be approached through considerations of well-structured management plans, the role of power for students and teacher, fostering moral and ethical development in the children, and a disposition of respect and care. To help prepare preservice teachers, instructors can model best practices and provide activities and discussions which foster exploration of effective management. A shift in the approach to management is recognized, from an authoritarian stance to a more collaborative one over the last few decades. Teachers must have a plethora of approaches to successfully manage diverse learners. This includes: creating meaningful curriculum and engaging pedagogy to support motivation, developing supportive learning communities, organizing and structuring the classroom, repairing and restoring behavior respectfully, and encouraging moral development (p. 332). Recognizing cultural differences and implementing a culturally responsive pedagogy are important components. Teachers must be open to the idea that there are multiple ways to perceive reality, and understand that students view ideas through their unique lenses. Students and teachers must work together to create a positive learning community. This includes factors outside of the classroom as well, such as family involvement. The organization of the room also contributes to a well-managed class. This may include the flow of the lessons, minimizing disruptions, clear rules and procedures, perceptions of power in relationships, physical arrangements, and types of learning strategies. A clear link between academics and behavior is shown. Designing engaging pedagogy in order to motivate and interest students is essential. This provides the intrinsic motivation needed and allows students to feel in control of their behavior. This is more effective than extrinsic motivators. Response “In the last twenty years, classroom management has undergone a paradigm shift from a focus on intervention - the recognition and punishment of misbehavior – to a focus on prevention through the development of classroom communities in which norms are established and academic routines promote constructive work (Brophy, 1988; Weinstein, 1999). Interestingly, although many of the interns I teach now are much younger than I, they still have the mindset of the older philosophy mentioned above, that behavior management means raising your voice to a student or giving them some kind of punishment. The idea of establishing a positive rapport in a school community as a proactive way to address behavior management is not within their existing repertoire. It’s something I strive to convey, through modeling within my own classroom and making explicit in the instruction. I am a strong believer in the idea that creating strong positive bonds between a teacher and student can successfully eliminate many behavior issues which otherwise might have occurred. If there is mutual respect and cooperation, if the student knows that you care about them not only regarding their academics but also as a person, then behavior issues all but disappear. Of course there are always exceptions, and students come to you with a variety of cultural, family and background concerns, but especially in cases such as these, is the connection necessary for success. I teach a behavior management class, and as usual, although I currently employ many of the best practices written about here, I see room for further improvement. One example of this would be to provide more modeling of effective behavior management strategies. Reading and talking about these techniques is a solid start, but allowing the interns to see these in practice can only help them. I model these with my interns, and point out what is occurring, but could also do more scenarios and video clips for some of the more sophisticated strategies, such as student lead classrooms. |
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