Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ch. 6 Teaching Subject Matter Summary This chapter deals with conundrums and practical research supported ideas regarding teaching, content and pedagogy. The authors acknowledge conflicting concepts within this realm, such as what is important within a subject matter, the best ways to teach, priorities within content such as canonical texts versus a variety of texts, basics versus reforms, state and national standards, personal growth approach, content or process. This is important because a teacher’s educational philosophy influences all aspects of their teaching, including how they teach all subject matter. Competing views of subject matter have shaped standards at both the state and national level, influencing what and how teachers implement curriculum. “Issues of alignment are critical, for teachers will have to balance the desire to teach for understanding with the knowledge that their students and they are likely to be judged by the state assessments, which may sometimes differ substantially in emphasis.” (p. 211). This chapter is centered on key questions, additional related sub questions, and their answers; a “framework for pedagogical content knowledge”. These main questions are: 1. How do we define subject matter? 2. What are the different purposes for teaching the subject matter in public schools? 3. What do understanding or performance look like with regard to this subject matter? 4. What are the primary curricula available to teach the subject matter? 5. How do teachers assess student understanding and performance within a subject matter domain? 6. What are the practices that characterize the teaching of particular content? Research shows that teachers need to possess not only content competency, but pedagogical skills as well. It’s not enough to simply master your content, but one must also be able to convey this information to students, defined here as pedagogical content knowledge. There is a need for teachers to “become diagnosticians of children’s interests and ideas and to engage students in explorations of subject matter that extend the reach of their understanding.” (p. 202). Additionally, it is important for a teacher to recognize and understand students’ backgrounds, cultures, and ways of learning in order to create effective instruction. Being able to identify misconceptions prior to teaching, present content in multiple formats, and understand connections between real world ideas and content is imperative. “Teachers need to be alert to the cultural knowledge and identities students bring to reading and writing, and how to anticipate the ways students can draw on such knowledge in learning to read and write complex texts.” (p. 218). Culturally responsive pedagogy should come into play. Subject specific assessments should be used to find out what students already know in order to design and implement instruction effectively. Connections Having taught an instructional planning course in the past, I connected to the section describing the work by Wiggins and McTighe, 1998, on backwards design focusing on a central question. Teaching is great way to focus one’s own skills, and this was such the case for me. I plan well designed lesson plans and am very knowledgeable in doing so. This particular curriculum design, Understanding by Design, was useful in honing my own skills and thinking in a new way about considerations for curriculum design. It encouraged me to consider the audience and role, assessments outside of the range of traditional written formats instead focusing on a performance task, and differentiation. I recall struggling to differentiate my lessons when I taught 6th grade science to a diverse group of students. It was a racially and culturally mixed group, at varying levels of science skill, speaking different languages, with many struggling to achieve success as defined by the school system. I hadn’t learned differentiation in my college years and the few professional development trainings I attended didn’t do the concept justice. I wish I had taken a class such as my interns now take, which guides you through the process step by step. I instinctively took into account my students’ cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, but having a deeper understanding of the role of content, methodology, pedagogy, and particularly differentiation strategies would have greatly benefited me and thus my students. I was also reassured to know that the teacher preparation courses our interns take pay off with positive results once they are in the classroom, with the authors citing research supporting teacher content courses which are not limited to the subject matter, but also include pedagogical skills. This balance is an important one, and should be reflected in teacher education programs, such as they are in ours.
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/Preparing Teachers for a Changing World, Chapter 5
Darling-Hammond, L., Banks, J., Zumwalt, K., Gomez, L., Sherin, M., Griesdorn, J., and Finn, L. (2005). Educational goals and purposes: Developing a curricular vision for teaching. In L. Darling, Hammond and J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. (pp. 1-39). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-4 Bass. Summary Curriculum is defined as “the learning experiences and goals the teacher develops for particular classes- both in her planning and while teaching- in light of the characteristics of students and the teaching context” (p. 170). Chapter 5 deals with curricular issues: equity, purpose, inclusion, social purposes, organization, informal and formal curriculum, and developing a “big picture” plan and curricular vision which focuses on the needs of students. This includes the hidden curriculum, which is the tacit messages sent by what priorities are selected and conveyed, both with what is included, and what is excluded. Assumptions include that new technologies play a key role in contemporary curriculum, preparing students to be responsible citizens is an important goal, that equity and inclusion play a strong role in the cultural democracy of education, and that students should have equal access to learning opportunities regardless of social status. The functions of education are explored, within the four lenses of learning: to develop as individuals, academic and skills focused, social and civic, and vocational learning. The teacher’s philosophy of education will hold sway in the type of curriculum they develop and implement. Not surprisingly, research shows that the curriculum choices in the classroom and school level impact student learning. Thus, it’s imperative that teachers learn about curriculum, including different views, how to develop and carry out successful curriculum, and how to make sound decisions including reflexively responding as needed. This knowledge must include equity considerations so that all students can succeed. When preparing teacher educators, universities can offer instructional planning courses which guide interns in the areas of planning educational goals within the confines of state and national standards, guiding practice in the development and implementation of instructional design, and evaluating existing curriculum. Connections “It is not legally or ethically acceptable to say to a special needs child whose new teacher fails to implement necessary accommodations that the teacher will learn how to attend to these needs some day, long after the child has failed or moved on to another classroom.” (p. 174). Having spent eight years as a teacher of exceptional students, I understand the time and effort which goes into developing appropriate accommodations for a special needs child. It’s frustrating when the “gen ed” teacher doesn’t educate herself/himself about these strategies or even what type of disability the child has been identified with. This includes new teachers, veteran teachers, ALL teachers. It is our responsibility to teach each child, to do whatever we can to help them learn and grow. We can’t claim ignorance or say it's too much trouble to find out what is actually in that individual education plan (IEP). We need to put those accommodations in place. Yes, it’s often more work. Yes, it can be time consuming. But, yes, it’s what is in the best interests of that child, and every child deserves the best that teacher can provide, every day. As a supervisor for preservice teachers, I have yet to receive a thorough answer when asking them about their students with special needs. They often don’t know what the child has been diagnosed with, no less what accommodations are on the IEP. And if this is the case, it’s certain that the accommodations have not been implemented. I explain to my interns that the IEP is a federal document. They are bound by law to know it, be able to produce a copy of it, and to put into place the actions included within it. Ignorance is no excuse. Parents don’t want to hear that you’re a new teacher and so you aren’t responsible for that information. They want to know that from day one, you will care for their child as if s/he were your own. You are legally and ethically responsible for fully implementing that IEP every day. An eye opening passage from the text talks about the need to include immigrant and minority students into a positively designed curriculum, fostering civic equality, in order to enable “diverse groups to have allegiance and commitment to the nation’s ideals and ownership in the political process. It gradually enlarges the common intellectual and cultural space that citizens share” (p 173). Of course it has always felt morally imperative to provide equal access to all students, but this adds a dimension which benefits society as a whole to perform this altruistic service. In thinking about the recent political hatemongering from certain presidential candidates, this voice of reason would make sense in a political as well as educational climate.
Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Summary The deficit perspective of students, focusing on what they lack rather than their strengths, is prevalent in many areas, including the development of student language. Chapter four of the book, Preparing Teacher for a Changing World, goes into great depth on the many uses of language, the role of language in children’s lives, situational language use, how language is acquired and developed, types of literacy, language use both inside and outside of the school setting, and advise for teachers and teacher educators working with students who are English Language Learners. Considering the strengths of individual students, rather than just their lack of knowledge regarding the language valued in a school setting, is important in their educational success. Challenges for students identified as ELL include understanding lectures and directions, information presented, questions asked, class discussions, text readings, projects relying on English language skills, oral presentations, and written tests. While “incipient bilinguals”, students with little knowledge of English, may be best served in a “sheltered” classroom which can offer greater support, those who are “ascendant bilinguals”, intermediate ELL students, and fully functional bilinguals can thrive in a general education classroom with proper support. These strategies may include providing models of great narratives, explaining how to write requested assignments, modeling tasks, and giving instruction in reading word problems. (p. 157) Additionally, keeping in mind that students may use a variety of dialects and languages depending on the situation, can be helpful, remembering that these differences are normal. Language education, including the knowledge required to serve students identified as ELL, should be integrated into course work at the university level for pre-service teachers (PST). Linguistics content can be interwoven into all content and pedagogical courses, allowing the PST to mentally integrate the information and apply it in their field work experiences. This continued exposure can provide a solid foundation of strategies for the new teacher as s(he) enters the field of education. “If teachers are to see languages as a central concern of their teaching and not as an ‘add-on’ requirement for dealing with ‘those students’ outside the mainstream, then the language education of teachers must be integrated throughout their teacher education and professional development experiences.” (p. 161). Reflection: Having gone through my own teacher training over 20 years ago, I can verify that strategies to best serve English Language Learners was not part of the university curriculum at that time. Many schools in the area did not have a diverse population, and the need for teachers trained in ELL strategies was in less demand. The changing demographics of our city, and the US as a whole, have driven home the need for a more diverse teacher preparation program. A greater focus on the topic of language acquisition and bilingual students is in play now, with PSTs taking not only separate ESOL courses, but having the ELL ideas and strategies interwoven into their other course work as well. Teaching these courses myself has provided me with a greater knowledge base from which to work. The emphasis on differentiation based on student needs is a perfect umbrella for this concept. Differentiating the curriculum can take many forms, in this case based on the language skills a student possesses. Teaching a class on differentiation allows me to make this connection directly, as one more way to prepare our teacher educators to serve the needs of each of their students. Additionally, the emphasis at our university on equity fits into this topic. Student strengths are valued, and the deficit model of thinking has been replaced by one of looking at the student as an overall picture of skills. What can they already do? What skills do they come to us with? How does this fit into their culture? How can it fit into the school culture? Better yet, how can the school culture fit in with the home culture as a marriage of two worlds, in order to create a complete picture for the child? Helping my PSTs think in this way, opening their minds to alternative points of view, is an important task to me as an instructor and supervisor. Bullough, R. & Draper, R. (2004). Making sense of a failed triad: Mentors, university supervisors, and positioning theory. Journal of Teacher Education 55(5), 408-420. Summary This article is about the “failed” relationship between a university supervisor, intern, and collaborating teacher, referred to here as a mentor teacher. It begins by examining the possible benefits for interns in this field placement setting. The hierarchical roles are examined, with each person in this triad bringing their own ideas, assumptions and perceptions to the table, as framed by “positioning theory”. Their roles are described as complicated and shifting, and in this case study, in competition. The research included 14 interns, with particular focus on this triad. Their description includes a math teacher, intern and supervisor, at odds over how to teach a particular lesson. The intern feels caught in the middle, trying to please her mentor teacher in order to pass on to the next level, and her supervisor, who is seen as being out of touch with the reality of the classroom situation. This causes stress for the intern, as well as the two disparaging persons in the triad. “They strive to balance sometimes conflicting demands to maintain desired relationships and to obtain positive teaching evaluations.” (p. 408). The authors conclude that the politics of these triads should be taken into account, and a positive open communication maintained in order for this relationship to work. This can only happen when attention is paid to the power and positioning of each member in the group. Differences should be recognized, but not used as an excuse for lack of equal collaboration. Veal, Mary Lou and Linda Rikard. Cooperating teachers' perspectives on the student teaching triad. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(2), 1998. pp. 108-119. Summary This article delves into the hierarchical nature of the intern, supervisor, mentor teacher triad. The researchers found that there is an imbalance of power between these players, particularly between the supervisor and the intern, with the power seeming to go towards the supervisor. The balance of power is more equalized between the mentor teacher and the intern, with a collaborative bond forming which can extend even beyond the internship period. It is suggested that instead of a true triad, these types of relationships naturally form dyads plus one. This is usually the intern and mentor teacher, with the addition of the supervisor as outsider. The balance of power cannot be perfectly equal, due to the nature of the structure. Mentor teachers may see supervisors as out of touch with the reality of their classroom, and thus maintain distance from their perceived ineffective partner. Veal and Rikard propose shared supervision as the answer to these issues, utilizing Habermas’ four norms of universal pragmatics (as cited from Smyth, 1986). These include speaking sincerely, legitimately, comprehensively, and truthfully. As in other current research, a lack of defined roles contributes to a less than perfect relationship between each of these persons (Bullough and Draper, 2004). The authors stress positive communication between each player in order for a successful internship to evolve. As part of this, they recommend that supervisors spend more time in schools and classrooms. Burns, R. W., Jacobs, J., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (Under Review). The changing nature of the role of the university supervisor and the function of preservice teacher supervision in an era of increased school-university collaboration. Action in Teacher Education. Summary Supervisory positions are often occupied by graduate students, retired faculty, or other educators who may have competing priorities and bring a variety of skills to bear in the important task of supervising pre-service teachers. The authors conducted a qualitative meta-analysis using published research in the field of supervision from 2001-2013, including 3 databases and 32 studies. This research informed their findings, identifying five tasks and twelve practices of pre-service teacher supervision. These include: (1) Targeted Assistance, (2) Individual Support, (3) Collaboration and Community, (4) Curriculum Support, and (5) Research for Innovation. These results indicate that PST supervision and the role of the PST supervisor is changing as the field moves towards strengthening clinical practice. Of particular note are two key points. First, the university supervisor plays a key role in maintaining a positive relationship among the triad, which includes the supervisor, mentor teacher, and pre-service teacher. The authors recommend the Supervisor investing adequate time to establish a positive relationship among all members, including mediating conflicts if necessary. Second, frequent communication is important in a successful triad relationship. the university supervisor plays in facilitating the triad relationship to support PST development. “Supervisors help to maintain triad relationships by developing clear lines of communication, being frequently present in the school, giving feedback to CT and PST, and mediating between CT and PST when needed (Burns, Jacobs and Yendol-Hoppey, (under review) citing Koerner, Rust, & Baumgartner, 2002). These ideas span multiple studies and seem to be essential in supporting and maintaining positive relationships in field based triads. Reaction It is normal that when working in a relationship such as this where the roles are not clearly defined, there may be some confusion and strife. It’s clear in a triad such as this that there may be an opportunity for misunderstandings to occur, specifically as they related to roles of power and influence. Who is in charge of evaluating the intern? Who has the final say in their passing or failing the internship? Which party or parties is responsible for guiding the intern regarding instruction, behavior management, and planning? Throughout my time at USF, it has been stressed to me that relationships are just as important and methods and curriculum. This is a key point in my educational philosophy. Without a personal yet professional relationship among the key players, success is limited. If you have a relationship with the intern and the mentor teacher, it makes it that much easier to negotiate a difficult situation. If problems arise, you want to have a bridge already in place so you can meet in the middle. Communication plays a key role in this as well. I’ve found that many conflicts are a matter of miscommunication and/or can be resolved through direct communication. Having a face to face meeting will solve 90% of issues. After all, we are all aiming for the same goal – to help the intern become a successful teacher and to help the students in that class become successful as well. Mentors are highly focused on this success, and can feel stressed if they see a disconnect between the two. But working together, communicating effectively and often, and maintaining a positive relationship are they ways to success for all. The longer I work in schools with these types of triads, the more I realize the power of these methods. |
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