- How Teachers Learn and Develop
- The Design of Teacher Education Programs - Implementing Curriculum Renewal in Teacher Education: Managing Organizational and Policy Change Summary This begins with a review of the history and current research theory regarding how teachers learn and develop as professionals. It is broken into main themes: adaptive expertise, teaching strategies, efficiency versus innovation, the process and theories of teacher development in communities of practice, teacher identify development, and a framework for teacher learning. Learning to teach in a community has five components. These include a vision of what is possible, tools, disposition, understanding, and practices. Teachers needs to have a deep understanding of their content and effective ways to share this knowledge with others. Learning tools include both conceptual as well as practical. A repertoire of these tools allows the teacher to be responsive to the needs of her students, and flexible when faced with challenges presented by diverse learners. These include instructional strategies, resources, assessments, frameworks, ideas, and leaning theories. A disposition of an inquiry stance, the self as a lifelong learner, is considered an important component of becoming an effective teacher. Equally important is working in a community of learners, such as a team of teachers or working in a peer group. Considering one’s identity includes being aware of self in areas such as moral agency, child advocate, scholar, and professional. Identity as a member of a racial/ethnic group influences each of these components, either directly or through a hidden curriculum created by the teacher as s/he creates a learning environment shaped by her own unique experiences. An oft-cited problem identified in teacher education is the disconnect between the theoretical and the practical, namely between course work and field experiences. Coherence in program design and among faculty is also a standard complaint of critics. Creating a strong program with unified vision and connections between theory and practice have been shown to have had a positive impact on teacher candidates. Content, process and context have a large influence on the effectiveness of a teacher education program, and should be considered when organizing scope and sequence of an educational plan. This includes engaging practices which merge course work and the opportunity to practice these skills in productive real world settings. Again, collaboration, such as in professional learning communities, can lead to increased use of effective strategies. Common features among programs which are considered successful in teacher preparation include: a shared vision of good teaching that is consistent in course and clinical work, well-defined standards of practice, rich clinical experiences lasting at least thirty weeks, strong school -university relationships, and extensive use of case study methods, teacher research performance assessments and portfolio examinations. (p. 406) Although there is no one size fits all solution for addressing these challenges, the strengths of these programs can serve as a guide for others in developing the most effective teacher preparation programs possible. Professional Development Schools are a key component in pre-service teacher preparation and success. They create a purposeful connection between the university and the school, and foster an inquiry based learning experience which promotes the idea of the teacher as a lifelong learner. This intensive experience is facilitated by strong supervisory contact, and purposeful connections between concept and practice. Students who graduate from PDSs have indicated a greater satisfaction with their preparation to become a teacher, and a well-developed knowledge base (p. 415). Connections “Teacher educators argue that teachers need to develop consciousness about their own racial identity and consider how they can support positive racial identity development among their students.” (p. 384). This is a goal I share, along with the university and program I teach within. How to facilitate this awareness for my interns is something I continue to wrestle with. I feel it’s important. Having taken a critical pedagogy course as part of my own studies, I understand the importance of being self-aware and in touch with any cultural biases one might have, which can influence your teaching and interactions with students. I want my pre-service teachers to have this same understanding as they move into their own classrooms. How can I get them there? Providing them with a rich and robust variety of written material is a start. Reading different pieces by different authors offers them a perspective from each, allowing them multiple opportunities to connect to the writings. This allows them to make connections between their own experiences and the new material. This addresses the “apprenticeship of observation” dilemma, a term coined by Lortie in 1975. Additionally, creating a safe space and encouraging dialogue among peers can facilitate learning gains. This shared discourse is a proven method of effective learning. (Friere, 1970). Utilizing a tool proposed in Darling-Hammonds work, providing a framework for metacognitive reflection is also something I use in my courses. Borrowing from Dr. J. Jacobs, as well as the ideas shared by Darling-Hammond, I would also like to incorporate more opportunities for students to reflect on their own ideas and experiences through written reflections such as an auto ethnography. The strength of the current practice of practitioner inquiry woven throughout the two years our interns are with us is a strong step in the right direction. Our interns have an exemplary preparation, with very strong clinical experiences. I also had a great interest in the section on using video analysis to reflect on and improve teaching. This brief section talks about how Northwest University had interns complete video-based assignments that drew on “explicit feedback from mentor teachers, university faculty, and program peers” (p. 428). Having conducted my own research on the use of video in enhancing teacher preparation, I found the idea of other ways to use video in self-reflection through technology of note. This practice was cited as helping to create a connection between the university and clinical experience, which is a context I had not explicitly considered prior to reading this, however, it does make sense. I see many correlations between the best practices and plethora of ideas presented in the Darling-Hammond text and the clinically rich and well-structured program at USF. It affirms that we are doing what is best for our students, and offering them an experience which will prepare them to be successful teachers. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., Bransford, J., Berliner, D., Cochran-Smith, M., McDonald, M. & Zeichner, K. (2005). How teachers learn and develop. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327- 357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Darling-Hammond, L., Hammerness, K., Grossman, P., Rust, F. & Shuman, L. (2005). The design of teacher education programs. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Darling-Hammond, L., Pacheco, A., J., Michelli, N., LePage, P., Hammerness, K. & Youngs, P. (2005). Implementing curriculum renewal in teacher education: Managing organization and policy change. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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LePage, P., Darling-Hammond, L., Akar, H., Guiterrez, C., Jenkins, G. & Rosebrook, K. (2005). Classroom Management. In Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. (pp. 327-357). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Summary The authors of chapter nine propose that classroom management is a standing necessity for preservice teachers to develop, yet one which does not receive enough attention in their educational training. Their definition of management includes not only the traditional aspects of rewarding good behavior and punishing poor behavior, but also the strong influencing factors of developing relationships, mutual respect, productive classroom communities, citizenship, student motivation, parent involvement, and students’ moral development. Interns often cite this as one of their greatest concerns. Five types of misbehavior are identified: aggression, immorality, disruptions, defiance and goofing off (p. 342-343). These can be approached through considerations of well-structured management plans, the role of power for students and teacher, fostering moral and ethical development in the children, and a disposition of respect and care. To help prepare preservice teachers, instructors can model best practices and provide activities and discussions which foster exploration of effective management. A shift in the approach to management is recognized, from an authoritarian stance to a more collaborative one over the last few decades. Teachers must have a plethora of approaches to successfully manage diverse learners. This includes: creating meaningful curriculum and engaging pedagogy to support motivation, developing supportive learning communities, organizing and structuring the classroom, repairing and restoring behavior respectfully, and encouraging moral development (p. 332). Recognizing cultural differences and implementing a culturally responsive pedagogy are important components. Teachers must be open to the idea that there are multiple ways to perceive reality, and understand that students view ideas through their unique lenses. Students and teachers must work together to create a positive learning community. This includes factors outside of the classroom as well, such as family involvement. The organization of the room also contributes to a well-managed class. This may include the flow of the lessons, minimizing disruptions, clear rules and procedures, perceptions of power in relationships, physical arrangements, and types of learning strategies. A clear link between academics and behavior is shown. Designing engaging pedagogy in order to motivate and interest students is essential. This provides the intrinsic motivation needed and allows students to feel in control of their behavior. This is more effective than extrinsic motivators. Response “In the last twenty years, classroom management has undergone a paradigm shift from a focus on intervention - the recognition and punishment of misbehavior – to a focus on prevention through the development of classroom communities in which norms are established and academic routines promote constructive work (Brophy, 1988; Weinstein, 1999). Interestingly, although many of the interns I teach now are much younger than I, they still have the mindset of the older philosophy mentioned above, that behavior management means raising your voice to a student or giving them some kind of punishment. The idea of establishing a positive rapport in a school community as a proactive way to address behavior management is not within their existing repertoire. It’s something I strive to convey, through modeling within my own classroom and making explicit in the instruction. I am a strong believer in the idea that creating strong positive bonds between a teacher and student can successfully eliminate many behavior issues which otherwise might have occurred. If there is mutual respect and cooperation, if the student knows that you care about them not only regarding their academics but also as a person, then behavior issues all but disappear. Of course there are always exceptions, and students come to you with a variety of cultural, family and background concerns, but especially in cases such as these, is the connection necessary for success. I teach a behavior management class, and as usual, although I currently employ many of the best practices written about here, I see room for further improvement. One example of this would be to provide more modeling of effective behavior management strategies. Reading and talking about these techniques is a solid start, but allowing the interns to see these in practice can only help them. I model these with my interns, and point out what is occurring, but could also do more scenarios and video clips for some of the more sophisticated strategies, such as student lead classrooms. Preparing Teachers for a Changing World
Assessment Ch. 8 Summary Assessment is a critical piece of providing a quality education not only to younger students but to adult learners as well. As part of an effective teacher preparation program, a multiplicity of both formative and summative assessments must be implemented and modelled. Formative assessment is considered an assessment carried out during the instructional process for the purpose of improving teaching or learning. Conversely, summative assessments are those that are carried out at the end of an instructional unit for the purpose of certifying student proficiency (p. 275-276). Each of these plays a critical role in student learning. Types of assessment may include student self-assessment (metacognitive), observation, written work products, oral presentations, projects, portfolios, tests, quizzes, questioning and discussion. Framework questions include: Where are you trying to go? Where are you now? And How can I get there? (p. 278). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) should be considered for students, incorporating this into the design of each lesson, without interrupting the flow of learning for some while working one on one with others. Scaffolding lessons and including routines which consider students’ ZPD can support learners. All assessments should focus on alignment with outcomes and goals, and include clear criteria for success. They should be made interesting to the learner, and provide data for both student’s strengths and areas of need. Progress maps are one way to design these. Prior knowledge should be considered. Addressing misconceptions is a documented part of this process, as well providing detailed feedback on how to improve. Teachers should keep equity issues in mind when designing assessments, such as language needs, family and community background, student interests and prior knowledge, communication methods, and access to resources. Three audiences for grading include parents, external users, and students. Some guidelines for appropriate assessment for children ages 3 to 8 include: Curriculum and assessment are integrated throughout the program, assessment benefits the child, assessment provides teachers with useful information to successfully fulfill their responsibilities, it involves regular and periodic observation of the child in a wide variety of settings, and relies on demonstrated performance in real world, not contrived, activities (p. 299). Grading can have negative effects on students, decreasing motivation and achievement. Connection Throughout this chapter, I was able to make multiple connections to my own teaching and learning. I constantly evaluated my own instruction, particularly in the course I’m teaching now, Instructional Planning. I noticed that I teach the important information about assessments, but feel a need to model and incorporate more pre-assessment into my instruction. For example, I ask my students to include a pre-assessment as part of their lesson planning, and show how they use this information to adjust their lesson. But I often go in and teach them without having conducted any such pre-assessment. Although I provide an exit ticket at the end of each class, and use this information to plan the upcoming lesson, I could do more specifically focused data collection, and then make this use explicit for my interns. The questions I use are more open ended, such as what worked for you this class, what questions do you still have, what didn’t work for you, what did you learn, and what was your level of effort. Although I use some pre-assessments, I need to increase not only the frequency of their use, but use these to further influence and direct my instructional design, making this an explicit component for my interns. The detail which the authors provide on utilizing formative assessments was helpful to me, and I plan to increase its use and my response to the data. Reference: Shepard, L., Hammerness, L., Darling-Hammond, L., Rust, F., Baratz, S., Gordon, E. Guitierrez, C. and Pacheco, A. (2005). Assessment. In L. Darling,Hammond and J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. (pp. 275-326). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 7 Teaching Diverse Learners “To support democracy, educators must seek to eliminate disparities in educational opportunities among all students, especially those students who have been poorly served by our current system.” (p. 233) Summary In this well written chapter, the authors stress the importance of preparing teacher educators to effectively meet the needs of diverse learners. Educators need to create a culturally responsive classroom, which ties together the students’ background, community, and home life. This “boundary crossing” positively influences student achievement, and avoids the conflict that can occur for some when their personal life does not align with the expectations of formal education. Teachers have traditionally been demographically and racially different from many of their students. They bring with them their own ideas and preconceptions about school and teaching, which frame how they themselves teach. Teachers are encouraged to engage in self-examination of existing concepts, accompanied with thoughtful reflection. This “sociocultural consciousness” enables instructors to “realize the worldview they may have grown up with is not universal but is greatly influenced by their life experiences and aspects of their cultural, gender, race, ethnicity, and social class background.” (p. 253). Equity pedagogy should be a part of all teacher preparation programs, integrated throughout each course and not taught in a single isolated class. This increases the effectiveness of such an approach, and allows graduates to take action as part of the “demographic imperative”. A great deal of research supports the idea that there is a direct correlation between great teachers, great resources, and great student achievement. Poverty contributes to low achievement. The “hidden curriculum” which is not responsive to the needs of diverse learners can lead to a lack of commitment, loss of feelings of belonging, and a lack of trust, all of which influences student achievement. It is important to focus on a student’s strengths and consider what they can do, what they bring to the diverse classroom. This lens provides support for children who are different, and rallies against more traditional views of the student as a collection of weaknesses, seeing “different” as weak or bad. Additionally, reserve judgement on students who may initially appear uncooperative or unmotivated. There are many reasons behaviors may manifest, and it is best to avoid quick assumptions. Design curriculum to meet the needs of the students, not trying to force the students into a readymade curriculum which is one size fits all. Accommodations for students with special needs might include variations on assignment size, time needed, level of support, instructional strategies used, products, degree of participation, modification of goals, and alternative curriculum. Visual aids, concrete examples, and hands-on activities are also effective. Placement of student teachers should be carefully done, in order for PSTS to learn from positive skilled role models (sorry Mr. Nolan). “It is difficult to learn to teach well by imagining what good teaching might look like or by positing the opposite of what one has seen. Rather, placing students carefully with cooperating teachers who are teaching in culturally responsive ways and then structuring those field placements to connect with courses that help teachers understand those experience re both essential to providing learning opportunities for students doing this work.” (p. 273) Response I found several of the statistics in the reading shocking. For example, not only do 1 in 4 children in the U.S. live in poverty, but that number jumps to 42% for African American children and 40% for Hispanic children. That means that if you look out upon the children in a typical elementary school classroom, nearly half of them may not get enough to eat, have a safe place to live, or have enough financial resources to meet their needs. Keeping this in mind can be helpful to a teacher, who may have never experienced this type of deprivation. Knowing your students is critical, and should influence all aspects of the classroom. I was also amazed that many teachers hold negative attitudes towards minority students, including their abilities, language, behavior, and potential. Additionally, they have fewer favorable interactions with their teachers than white students, and are more likely to be punished for offenses than white students (p. 241). Whether these inequities are consciously committed or not, they are avoidable if teacher become aware and work to address these. When training new teachers, it is important that this evidence be brought to the forefront when allowing and encouraging student teachers to become agents of change in building a culturally responsive practice. Further, research shows that females are “less likely to be called upon by name, are asked fewer complex and abstract questions, receive less praise or constructive feedback, and are given less direction on how to do things.” (p. 242). This negativity could be eliminated if attention is given to the problem, and steps taken to address it. Working with my pre-service teachers is a step in the right direction. On a more general note, I agreed with the authors proposal that effective teachers of students of color link classroom content to students’ experiences, focus on the whole child, and believe that all students can succeed. This includes a genuine dialogue with and among students. These are tenets of great teaching for any children. They are ideas I want to stress to my PSTs, and plan to incorporate into future classes. Interestingly, the authors propose allowing students to integrate into the community. Our university includes an alternative field experience during the summer before the interns’ senior year, which fits in with this model perfectly. Interns work in the Boys and Girls Clubs two days a week, getting to know their students and learning about their communities. This provides a connection from school to home, and for some interns is their first experience in a low income setting. Many of the interns I worked with last year commented on what an eye opening experience this was for them and how much they learned, including confronting their own assumptions and views. Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ch. 6 Teaching Subject Matter Summary This chapter deals with conundrums and practical research supported ideas regarding teaching, content and pedagogy. The authors acknowledge conflicting concepts within this realm, such as what is important within a subject matter, the best ways to teach, priorities within content such as canonical texts versus a variety of texts, basics versus reforms, state and national standards, personal growth approach, content or process. This is important because a teacher’s educational philosophy influences all aspects of their teaching, including how they teach all subject matter. Competing views of subject matter have shaped standards at both the state and national level, influencing what and how teachers implement curriculum. “Issues of alignment are critical, for teachers will have to balance the desire to teach for understanding with the knowledge that their students and they are likely to be judged by the state assessments, which may sometimes differ substantially in emphasis.” (p. 211). This chapter is centered on key questions, additional related sub questions, and their answers; a “framework for pedagogical content knowledge”. These main questions are: 1. How do we define subject matter? 2. What are the different purposes for teaching the subject matter in public schools? 3. What do understanding or performance look like with regard to this subject matter? 4. What are the primary curricula available to teach the subject matter? 5. How do teachers assess student understanding and performance within a subject matter domain? 6. What are the practices that characterize the teaching of particular content? Research shows that teachers need to possess not only content competency, but pedagogical skills as well. It’s not enough to simply master your content, but one must also be able to convey this information to students, defined here as pedagogical content knowledge. There is a need for teachers to “become diagnosticians of children’s interests and ideas and to engage students in explorations of subject matter that extend the reach of their understanding.” (p. 202). Additionally, it is important for a teacher to recognize and understand students’ backgrounds, cultures, and ways of learning in order to create effective instruction. Being able to identify misconceptions prior to teaching, present content in multiple formats, and understand connections between real world ideas and content is imperative. “Teachers need to be alert to the cultural knowledge and identities students bring to reading and writing, and how to anticipate the ways students can draw on such knowledge in learning to read and write complex texts.” (p. 218). Culturally responsive pedagogy should come into play. Subject specific assessments should be used to find out what students already know in order to design and implement instruction effectively. Connections Having taught an instructional planning course in the past, I connected to the section describing the work by Wiggins and McTighe, 1998, on backwards design focusing on a central question. Teaching is great way to focus one’s own skills, and this was such the case for me. I plan well designed lesson plans and am very knowledgeable in doing so. This particular curriculum design, Understanding by Design, was useful in honing my own skills and thinking in a new way about considerations for curriculum design. It encouraged me to consider the audience and role, assessments outside of the range of traditional written formats instead focusing on a performance task, and differentiation. I recall struggling to differentiate my lessons when I taught 6th grade science to a diverse group of students. It was a racially and culturally mixed group, at varying levels of science skill, speaking different languages, with many struggling to achieve success as defined by the school system. I hadn’t learned differentiation in my college years and the few professional development trainings I attended didn’t do the concept justice. I wish I had taken a class such as my interns now take, which guides you through the process step by step. I instinctively took into account my students’ cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, but having a deeper understanding of the role of content, methodology, pedagogy, and particularly differentiation strategies would have greatly benefited me and thus my students. I was also reassured to know that the teacher preparation courses our interns take pay off with positive results once they are in the classroom, with the authors citing research supporting teacher content courses which are not limited to the subject matter, but also include pedagogical skills. This balance is an important one, and should be reflected in teacher education programs, such as they are in ours. /Preparing Teachers for a Changing World, Chapter 5
Darling-Hammond, L., Banks, J., Zumwalt, K., Gomez, L., Sherin, M., Griesdorn, J., and Finn, L. (2005). Educational goals and purposes: Developing a curricular vision for teaching. In L. Darling, Hammond and J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. (pp. 1-39). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-4 Bass. Summary Curriculum is defined as “the learning experiences and goals the teacher develops for particular classes- both in her planning and while teaching- in light of the characteristics of students and the teaching context” (p. 170). Chapter 5 deals with curricular issues: equity, purpose, inclusion, social purposes, organization, informal and formal curriculum, and developing a “big picture” plan and curricular vision which focuses on the needs of students. This includes the hidden curriculum, which is the tacit messages sent by what priorities are selected and conveyed, both with what is included, and what is excluded. Assumptions include that new technologies play a key role in contemporary curriculum, preparing students to be responsible citizens is an important goal, that equity and inclusion play a strong role in the cultural democracy of education, and that students should have equal access to learning opportunities regardless of social status. The functions of education are explored, within the four lenses of learning: to develop as individuals, academic and skills focused, social and civic, and vocational learning. The teacher’s philosophy of education will hold sway in the type of curriculum they develop and implement. Not surprisingly, research shows that the curriculum choices in the classroom and school level impact student learning. Thus, it’s imperative that teachers learn about curriculum, including different views, how to develop and carry out successful curriculum, and how to make sound decisions including reflexively responding as needed. This knowledge must include equity considerations so that all students can succeed. When preparing teacher educators, universities can offer instructional planning courses which guide interns in the areas of planning educational goals within the confines of state and national standards, guiding practice in the development and implementation of instructional design, and evaluating existing curriculum. Connections “It is not legally or ethically acceptable to say to a special needs child whose new teacher fails to implement necessary accommodations that the teacher will learn how to attend to these needs some day, long after the child has failed or moved on to another classroom.” (p. 174). Having spent eight years as a teacher of exceptional students, I understand the time and effort which goes into developing appropriate accommodations for a special needs child. It’s frustrating when the “gen ed” teacher doesn’t educate herself/himself about these strategies or even what type of disability the child has been identified with. This includes new teachers, veteran teachers, ALL teachers. It is our responsibility to teach each child, to do whatever we can to help them learn and grow. We can’t claim ignorance or say it's too much trouble to find out what is actually in that individual education plan (IEP). We need to put those accommodations in place. Yes, it’s often more work. Yes, it can be time consuming. But, yes, it’s what is in the best interests of that child, and every child deserves the best that teacher can provide, every day. As a supervisor for preservice teachers, I have yet to receive a thorough answer when asking them about their students with special needs. They often don’t know what the child has been diagnosed with, no less what accommodations are on the IEP. And if this is the case, it’s certain that the accommodations have not been implemented. I explain to my interns that the IEP is a federal document. They are bound by law to know it, be able to produce a copy of it, and to put into place the actions included within it. Ignorance is no excuse. Parents don’t want to hear that you’re a new teacher and so you aren’t responsible for that information. They want to know that from day one, you will care for their child as if s/he were your own. You are legally and ethically responsible for fully implementing that IEP every day. An eye opening passage from the text talks about the need to include immigrant and minority students into a positively designed curriculum, fostering civic equality, in order to enable “diverse groups to have allegiance and commitment to the nation’s ideals and ownership in the political process. It gradually enlarges the common intellectual and cultural space that citizens share” (p 173). Of course it has always felt morally imperative to provide equal access to all students, but this adds a dimension which benefits society as a whole to perform this altruistic service. In thinking about the recent political hatemongering from certain presidential candidates, this voice of reason would make sense in a political as well as educational climate.
Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Summary The deficit perspective of students, focusing on what they lack rather than their strengths, is prevalent in many areas, including the development of student language. Chapter four of the book, Preparing Teacher for a Changing World, goes into great depth on the many uses of language, the role of language in children’s lives, situational language use, how language is acquired and developed, types of literacy, language use both inside and outside of the school setting, and advise for teachers and teacher educators working with students who are English Language Learners. Considering the strengths of individual students, rather than just their lack of knowledge regarding the language valued in a school setting, is important in their educational success. Challenges for students identified as ELL include understanding lectures and directions, information presented, questions asked, class discussions, text readings, projects relying on English language skills, oral presentations, and written tests. While “incipient bilinguals”, students with little knowledge of English, may be best served in a “sheltered” classroom which can offer greater support, those who are “ascendant bilinguals”, intermediate ELL students, and fully functional bilinguals can thrive in a general education classroom with proper support. These strategies may include providing models of great narratives, explaining how to write requested assignments, modeling tasks, and giving instruction in reading word problems. (p. 157) Additionally, keeping in mind that students may use a variety of dialects and languages depending on the situation, can be helpful, remembering that these differences are normal. Language education, including the knowledge required to serve students identified as ELL, should be integrated into course work at the university level for pre-service teachers (PST). Linguistics content can be interwoven into all content and pedagogical courses, allowing the PST to mentally integrate the information and apply it in their field work experiences. This continued exposure can provide a solid foundation of strategies for the new teacher as s(he) enters the field of education. “If teachers are to see languages as a central concern of their teaching and not as an ‘add-on’ requirement for dealing with ‘those students’ outside the mainstream, then the language education of teachers must be integrated throughout their teacher education and professional development experiences.” (p. 161). Reflection: Having gone through my own teacher training over 20 years ago, I can verify that strategies to best serve English Language Learners was not part of the university curriculum at that time. Many schools in the area did not have a diverse population, and the need for teachers trained in ELL strategies was in less demand. The changing demographics of our city, and the US as a whole, have driven home the need for a more diverse teacher preparation program. A greater focus on the topic of language acquisition and bilingual students is in play now, with PSTs taking not only separate ESOL courses, but having the ELL ideas and strategies interwoven into their other course work as well. Teaching these courses myself has provided me with a greater knowledge base from which to work. The emphasis on differentiation based on student needs is a perfect umbrella for this concept. Differentiating the curriculum can take many forms, in this case based on the language skills a student possesses. Teaching a class on differentiation allows me to make this connection directly, as one more way to prepare our teacher educators to serve the needs of each of their students. Additionally, the emphasis at our university on equity fits into this topic. Student strengths are valued, and the deficit model of thinking has been replaced by one of looking at the student as an overall picture of skills. What can they already do? What skills do they come to us with? How does this fit into their culture? How can it fit into the school culture? Better yet, how can the school culture fit in with the home culture as a marriage of two worlds, in order to create a complete picture for the child? Helping my PSTs think in this way, opening their minds to alternative points of view, is an important task to me as an instructor and supervisor. Bullough, R. & Draper, R. (2004). Making sense of a failed triad: Mentors, university supervisors, and positioning theory. Journal of Teacher Education 55(5), 408-420. Summary This article is about the “failed” relationship between a university supervisor, intern, and collaborating teacher, referred to here as a mentor teacher. It begins by examining the possible benefits for interns in this field placement setting. The hierarchical roles are examined, with each person in this triad bringing their own ideas, assumptions and perceptions to the table, as framed by “positioning theory”. Their roles are described as complicated and shifting, and in this case study, in competition. The research included 14 interns, with particular focus on this triad. Their description includes a math teacher, intern and supervisor, at odds over how to teach a particular lesson. The intern feels caught in the middle, trying to please her mentor teacher in order to pass on to the next level, and her supervisor, who is seen as being out of touch with the reality of the classroom situation. This causes stress for the intern, as well as the two disparaging persons in the triad. “They strive to balance sometimes conflicting demands to maintain desired relationships and to obtain positive teaching evaluations.” (p. 408). The authors conclude that the politics of these triads should be taken into account, and a positive open communication maintained in order for this relationship to work. This can only happen when attention is paid to the power and positioning of each member in the group. Differences should be recognized, but not used as an excuse for lack of equal collaboration. Veal, Mary Lou and Linda Rikard. Cooperating teachers' perspectives on the student teaching triad. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(2), 1998. pp. 108-119. Summary This article delves into the hierarchical nature of the intern, supervisor, mentor teacher triad. The researchers found that there is an imbalance of power between these players, particularly between the supervisor and the intern, with the power seeming to go towards the supervisor. The balance of power is more equalized between the mentor teacher and the intern, with a collaborative bond forming which can extend even beyond the internship period. It is suggested that instead of a true triad, these types of relationships naturally form dyads plus one. This is usually the intern and mentor teacher, with the addition of the supervisor as outsider. The balance of power cannot be perfectly equal, due to the nature of the structure. Mentor teachers may see supervisors as out of touch with the reality of their classroom, and thus maintain distance from their perceived ineffective partner. Veal and Rikard propose shared supervision as the answer to these issues, utilizing Habermas’ four norms of universal pragmatics (as cited from Smyth, 1986). These include speaking sincerely, legitimately, comprehensively, and truthfully. As in other current research, a lack of defined roles contributes to a less than perfect relationship between each of these persons (Bullough and Draper, 2004). The authors stress positive communication between each player in order for a successful internship to evolve. As part of this, they recommend that supervisors spend more time in schools and classrooms. Burns, R. W., Jacobs, J., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (Under Review). The changing nature of the role of the university supervisor and the function of preservice teacher supervision in an era of increased school-university collaboration. Action in Teacher Education. Summary Supervisory positions are often occupied by graduate students, retired faculty, or other educators who may have competing priorities and bring a variety of skills to bear in the important task of supervising pre-service teachers. The authors conducted a qualitative meta-analysis using published research in the field of supervision from 2001-2013, including 3 databases and 32 studies. This research informed their findings, identifying five tasks and twelve practices of pre-service teacher supervision. These include: (1) Targeted Assistance, (2) Individual Support, (3) Collaboration and Community, (4) Curriculum Support, and (5) Research for Innovation. These results indicate that PST supervision and the role of the PST supervisor is changing as the field moves towards strengthening clinical practice. Of particular note are two key points. First, the university supervisor plays a key role in maintaining a positive relationship among the triad, which includes the supervisor, mentor teacher, and pre-service teacher. The authors recommend the Supervisor investing adequate time to establish a positive relationship among all members, including mediating conflicts if necessary. Second, frequent communication is important in a successful triad relationship. the university supervisor plays in facilitating the triad relationship to support PST development. “Supervisors help to maintain triad relationships by developing clear lines of communication, being frequently present in the school, giving feedback to CT and PST, and mediating between CT and PST when needed (Burns, Jacobs and Yendol-Hoppey, (under review) citing Koerner, Rust, & Baumgartner, 2002). These ideas span multiple studies and seem to be essential in supporting and maintaining positive relationships in field based triads. Reaction It is normal that when working in a relationship such as this where the roles are not clearly defined, there may be some confusion and strife. It’s clear in a triad such as this that there may be an opportunity for misunderstandings to occur, specifically as they related to roles of power and influence. Who is in charge of evaluating the intern? Who has the final say in their passing or failing the internship? Which party or parties is responsible for guiding the intern regarding instruction, behavior management, and planning? Throughout my time at USF, it has been stressed to me that relationships are just as important and methods and curriculum. This is a key point in my educational philosophy. Without a personal yet professional relationship among the key players, success is limited. If you have a relationship with the intern and the mentor teacher, it makes it that much easier to negotiate a difficult situation. If problems arise, you want to have a bridge already in place so you can meet in the middle. Communication plays a key role in this as well. I’ve found that many conflicts are a matter of miscommunication and/or can be resolved through direct communication. Having a face to face meeting will solve 90% of issues. After all, we are all aiming for the same goal – to help the intern become a successful teacher and to help the students in that class become successful as well. Mentors are highly focused on this success, and can feel stressed if they see a disconnect between the two. But working together, communicating effectively and often, and maintaining a positive relationship are they ways to success for all. The longer I work in schools with these types of triads, the more I realize the power of these methods. Valencia, S. W., Martin, S. D., Place, N. A., & Grossman, P. (2009). Complex interactions in
student teaching: Lost opportunities for learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(3), 304-322. doi:10.1177/0022487109336543 Summary Complex Interactions in Student Teaching is a four-year study of student teaching from the perspective of three key stakeholders: the pre-service teacher, the in-service teacher, and the university supervisor. The authors examine this triad using “activity theory”. This framework takes into account that each participant brings with them the sum of their experiences, which influence how they view the relationships and tasks involved in the field work aspect of teacher training, particularly language arts. The authors found that competing demands and differing perspectives were at work, shaping how each participant interpreted, acted, and viewed the experience. As in much of the current literature, a gap was found between university methods courses and the internship field work. Being such a critical role in the training and development of teacher education, this research sheds light on important aspects of the reality of a pre-service teacher, supervisor, and collaborating teacher. Reaction The ideas behind activity theory (Grossman, Smagorinsky, & Valencia, 1999) connect to my recent readings by L. Vygotsky and his theories of child development. He proposed that learning is aligned largely with one’s cultural experiences. This cultural-historical psychology framed learning in much the same way that action theory does. In general, activity theory asserts that “a person’s framework for thinking is developed through participation and problem solving in specific environments that are themselves shaped by both present and historical contexts” (p. 306). The commonality between these two theories is the emphasis on the social environment as a major factor in higher cognitive functioning. It’s obvious to me that the authors of Complex Interactions in Student Teaching are insightful in their claims. Yes, there is often a disconnect between methods courses and field experience. Interns do often experience conflict and are pulled in different directions academically, philosophically, and emotionally. They are often caught in the middle, between what their supervisor tells them to do and what their supervisor wishes. They have to balance the demands of each person in the triad, often bowing to the demands of the CT over the supervisor. The triad relationship is complex and intricate, but an essential part of an effective teacher preparation program. Additionally, I connected with the idea of “benign neglect” (p. 310) by a CT. I have a student who presented a lesson plan to me prior to a formal observation. The lesson plan was in need of revision and had evident flaws and gaps. I asked her if her CT had looked at this document and the student teacher said no, that her CT never does, but tells her to do whatever she wants, because she “trusts her”. This amazed me. I explained to her that one of the key pieces of this partnership was to receive feedback from the veteran teacher, and collaborate on all aspects of teaching, including on lesson planning. I felt that the CT was indeed neglecting her intern, though not maliciously, but through her lack of involvement. I did address the situation with both the intern and the CT, in a professional manner which preserved the rapport of the triad relationship. It was an eye opening experience, and something I intend to address more proactively in the future. Badiali, No More Cooperating Teachers Summary This short article by Badiali describes the role of those who have been traditionally referred to as cooperating teachers, posting instead that they be called mentors, which better defines their role as an important part of a professional development school partnership. It redefines their role as a coach, collaborator, and co-teacher. These mentors are willing participants in this process, and agree to learn alongside the teacher candidate. The author presents three main reasons a teacher would be willing to take on this role: the benefit to students of having an additional teacher in the room, the benefit to them through adult interaction during the school day, and finally, the ability to contribute to the development of a new teacher. This fosters growth in the teacher, and may help them maintain professional momentum in their own career. Reaction This article contains familiar information, and has been a part of my professional studies since starting at the university. It connects to my experiences in Supervision II, where we had the great pleasure of interviewing Jim Nolan, who exposed me to the idea that you don’t have to be an expert teacher to be of benefit to an intern, or conversely to benefit from having an intern. The idea that a mediocre or struggling teacher could enhance her own skills through this partnership had no occurred to me, and I still wrestle with this notion. My own experience shows me that a pre-service teacher models what their CT does each day, so of course you want them to have the most effective role model possible. However, how does this weigh against the needs of that teacher who is struggling, and can benefit from the PST? Do the needs of one outweigh the needs of the other? Can the intern still benefit from a less than stellar role model? I continue to wrestle with this quandary. Clarke, A., Triggs, V., & Nielsen, W. (2014). Cooperating teacher participation in teacher education: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 84(2), 163-202. DOI: 10.31012/0034654313499618 Summary Clark, Triggs and Nielsen write about the important role of a collaborating teacher (CT). Interns view their field experience as one of the most important components of their teacher training, and place a high value on their CT. Traditionally, the CTs role has been understood to fall along a continuum of “classroom placeholder, supervisor of practica, and teacher educator” (p. 166), from least involved to most active. The practices of the CT often mirror their own experiences as pre-service teachers (PSTs). The authors examine the role of the CT in a more empirical fashion, assigning them to one of eleven categories which include: Providers of Feedback, Gatekeepers of the Profession, Modelers of Practice, Supporters of Reflection, Gleaners of Knowledge, Purveyors of Context, Conveners of Relation, Agents of Socialization, Advocates of the Practical, Abiders of Change, and Teachers of Children. Each of these is explained in detail for interested readers. As part of the methodology, the researchers examined an impressive 456 scholarly articles, rating each according to set criteria, categorizing these, and analyzing claims. A detailed description is included. The authors also describe the traditional relationship between the university and the school/CT, with the majority of the power going to the university, especially in terms of evaluation. This is seen as an area in need of further examination. Gaventa’s work from 2007 is used as a framework for further analysis, with three elements of closed, invited and claimed. Clark, Triggs and Nielsen claim that the invited elements produces the most effective relationship. “This space represents a genuine engagement between the parties and the endpoint of that engagement is not prefigured by one party or preempted by the other.” (p. 188). It’s interesting to note that the most common theme among all CTs was the claim that they are there to teach children, an admirable goal. However, this may create barriers to serving pre-service teachers, when prioritizing aims. Reaction Being a university supervisor, I found many connections to the reading. One particular portion drew me in, due to my own self-definition as such, gatekeeper. I was intrigued by the question, “Who is responsible for evaluation?” The collaborating teachers spend the greater amount of time with the inters, and are often tasked with scoring an intern on their performance. Are they given the training and background to be comfortable with this task? What role should the supervisor play in this area? A more involved supervisor such as myself could offer valuable and reliable evaluations. But what about those who are less involved, such as graduate students who are more focused on their own education than that of their charges? Of course there are many competent and dedicated GAs, but there are also those whose priorities are divided, to the detriment of the pre-service and collaborating teacher. This is a disservice to our interns. A supervisor should be given time and resources to play a significant role in the training and evaluation of the developing teacher. When they aren’t, not only does the intern suffer, but it can place unnecessary pressure on the CT. Clift, R.T. & Brady, P. (2005). Research on Methods Courses and Field Experiences in M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (eds.) Studying Teacher Education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Before 1975, research in the area of teacher efficacy was largely psychology based with a focus on behavioral studies and measured outcomes. Teachers were taught particular behaviors to implement, and then the test scores and other measures of success were examined. Research at this time noted a fractured curriculum in teacher preparation programs, not only from program to program, but also with a disconnect between methods courses and field work. A lack of attention to instruction was noted. The efficacy of the field work experience was largely untested. A large gap between university courses and field work application existed. A call for self-study was issued, as well as a pointed need for clearer connections between methods coursework and field experiences, and studies which followed the pre-service teachers into their in-service teaching career. “Student teaching experience was seldom connected to program goals and that few structures existed to support cooperation or resolve conflict among supervisors, teachers and students.” (p. 310). Over the next several decades, the pendulum swung away from these technical research formats, towards studying novice teachers’ beliefs, skills and knowledge. A previous lack of research was replaced by studies which included not only the observable behaviors, but the cultural, and experience situational based analysis. The authors continue with an examination of the four basic content areas: reading, math, science and social studies. Their common focus question for each is “What impacts do methods courses have on preservice teachers’ beliefs and practices. They find themes such as acknowledging the complexity of marrying course work and field work in reality, and the importance of creating bridges between content and application. The role of the professional development school is examined, and its impact on pre-service teachers. Five recommendations are included regarding issues of research methodology and theory development. These include: a description of participant demographics and a mindfulness towards diversity, disclosure of the relationship between the researcher and participant(s), a need for a description of related literature as well as statements regarding the researcher’s conceptual framework, assumptions, and a clear research question, and research which extended beyond the short term and smaller scale case studies, and included the input of collaborating teachers. Interestingly, in Clift and Brady’s article, they note that the methods course instructor is or was rarely the same as the field supervisor (p. 313), contributing to the disconnect between university course work and field work experiences. I agree with this. I am pleased to note that this is not the case in my current position. I not only supervise two groups of interns, juniors and seniors, but I am also the course instructor for many of these same students. Having been a part of the disjointed structure last year where I was the field supervisor but not the course instructor, and now serving in both capacities this year, I have the unique perspective of being able to compare these models. I find being able to serve the dual role of supervisor and course instructor is far superior. My personal community based connection to the students is much stronger, as I know how they learn, what they enjoy, family and cultural backgrounds, and many unique experiences. We enjoy a positive rapport that has been built over time, and contributes to the smooth and effective operation of both the classroom and field supervision interactions. We have built a trust that is important for educational risk taking, which is a key component for professional and personal growth. Additionally, I have an academic advantage in knowing my students’ strengths, areas in need of focus, and field work experiences and exposures. I know where they excel and where they struggle. I can make direct explicit connections to what was learned in the course and what is occurring, or should be occurring, in the field. By making the tacit explicit, debriefing and unpacking during or immediately after they provide instruction to students, I believe the pre-service student’s experience is strengthened. We can draw correlations and comparisons between methods course content and field work in the moment. The connections can be made clear. If I were not their course instructor as well as their supervisor, this valuable exchange would not be possible. |
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